Contingency theory

Considered, when developed, a complex and controversial model, Fiedler’s Contingency Theory (1958) was named ‘contingency theory’ because leader effectiveness depends on not only the leader, but also on the followers and the situation. Contingency theory looks at: 

(a) the leader’s personal leadership style (encompassing personal traits, behaviour and their role); as well as 

(b) the situation (including the task, structure, systems and environment); and 

(c) the follower's readiness (the team needs, maturity, training and cohesion). 

Together, these factors contribute to the desired outcomes, whether a leader is task-oriented or relationship-oriented and matches leader style to situation. These three sets of characteristics - leader; situation; followers - collectively form the base for Fiedler’s Contingency Theory (1958). 

Fiedler's (1958) model forms a punnet chart, with four possible behaviour approaches: high task, low relationship; high task, high relationship; high relationship, low task; and low task, low relationship. A leader can adapt their style to be high or low on both task and relationship behaviour (Fielder, 1958). 

Fiedler’s (1958) model was designed to diagnose both leadership style and the organisational situation: 

1. Firstly we need to identify our personal style style – i.e. whether we as the leader are relationship-oriented or task-oriented (and using a later theory, the Least Preferred Co-worker inventory, to determine our style). 
2. Secondly, we plot leadership situation on favourability continuum: Leader-follower relations where we measure follower’s leadership trust and respect in the leader; the clarity of the task structure where the group has clear goals and a clear means of achieving them; and the position power, which evaluates the leader's ability to reward or punish staff for their actions. 
3. Lastly, we determine what would be the best match for leadership style in this situation - which leader style was most favourable for success in the particular set of circumstances - and select an appropriate leader accordingly (Daft, 2008; Fiedler, 1958).

This last step allows us to explore a range of scenarios. Using the diagram accompanying this post, task-oriented leaders have the strongest positive effect in situations 1, 2, 3, and 8. Relationship-motivated leaders have the strongest positive effect in situations 4 through 7. We can see that relationship-oriented and task-oriented leaders perform well in some situations but not in others. Thus, leader effectiveness depends on the situation; it is contingent. And, generally, only leaders have the power to do something about the situation.

Fiedler’s Contingency Theory (1958) has lead to further theories: those of the Least Preferred Co-worker; Leader Style Fit; Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory; House’s Path Goal Theory; The Vroom-Jago Contingency Model and Substitutes for Leadership (Daft, 2008; Jackson & Parry, 2018). The contingency and behavioural theorists of the twentieth century have overall considered two key elements, termed meta-theories, where elements of task behaviour and relationship orientation are two key lenses to consider leadership through (Daft, 2008).

Read more here (Young, 2020), if you are interested :-)

Sam

References:

Daft, R. L., (2008). The Leadership Experience (4th ed.). Thomson-South Western.

Fiedler, F. (1958). Leader attitudes and group effectiveness (2nd printing, 1959). The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois.

Jackson, B., & Parry K. (2018). A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about studying leadership (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.

Young, S. (2020, February 3). Leader frames of reference. Acts of Leadership. https://www.samyoung.co.nz/2020/02/leader-frames-of-reference.html

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Recognising a narcissist manager

There are some CEO or manager narcissistic behaviours identified in research (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a). Collectively these behaviours might identify a particular CE or manager as possibly being a narcissist. 

It can be helpful to know what these behaviours are so that we can identify potentially toxic situations early. "Knowing" allows us take control over our own destinies and make the choice about when to move on from a role which is in danger of becoming toxic... or to avoid stepping into what is a potentially poor situation in the first place. Forewarned is forearmed.

The six items are (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a):

1. Praise. "The need for praise makes narcissistic CEOs more likely to take actions that lead the media to make them celebrities". This type of media-hungry CEO will play to the crowd: "violating conventions" (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a), look in the mirror when successful, through the window at failure (Collins, 2001). 
2. High-status people. "The need for praise makes narcissistic CEOs more likely to include larger proportions of high-status" staff (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a) in their teams. We are surrounded by high-flyers who make us feel special by association. So lots of stars (and see point 4 for the other side of this one)
3. Manipulation. "The need for praise and the presence of more high-status [staff] make narcissistic CEOs more likely to manipulate [their people] in ways that results in less [...] monitoring" (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a). We get left alone to do our work, without oversight; providing we do as we are told (see the next point)
4. Domination. "The need to dominate makes narcissistic CEOs likely to have more lower-status, younger, and less experienced" staff (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a). Then we can't argue with them. We more than likely lack the experience in dealing with this personality type. So.... lots of question marks to balance out the stars. 
5. Rewards and protection. "The needs for praise and domination make narcissistic CEOs more likely to give outsized rewards and protect loyal management team members who flatter the CEOs and defend them after poor firm performance" (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a). We get the big bucks working for these people, and they will protect us in order to prevent secrets from being spilled... until we fall from favour and then we get thrown to the wolves. Ouch.
6. Short (or long) tenure. "The need to dominate leads narcissistic CEOs’ [staff] to have either very brief or very long tenures with the organization" (Chatterjee & Pollock, 2022a). We either cope with this type of person and stay for ages because the roller-coaster we are on fills us with a continuous adrenalin high; or we leave fast because we can't cope with the roller-coaster. There is no mid-term.

What immediately springs to mind is the spread: stars versus question marks. Short versus long. Domination versus lack of boundaries.

This is a very interesting set of lenses for viewing our managers and CEOs through! 

Sam

References:

Chatterjee, A., & Pollock, T. G. (2022a). Six Things to Expect from Narcissistic CEOs. Academy of Management Insights Summary. https://journals.aom.org/doi/pdf/10.5465/amr.2015.0224.summary?download=true

Chatterjee, A., & Pollock, T. G. (2022b). Six Things to Expect from Narcissistic CEOs [infographic]. Academy of Management Insights. https://journals.aom.org/cms/10.5465/amr.2015.0224.summary/asset/images/medium/six_things_to_expect_from_narcissistic_ceos_infographic.png

Collins, J. (2001). Good to Great. HarperCollins Publishers.

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6 stages of role development

Last year I was reading an article by the CEO of Recruitment firm, KornFerry, showing six stages of career 'development' (Burnison, 2021). I was quite struck how this CEO had turned career development into a process that I have not seen in the career development field. I could not decide if I liked it or not.

The model seems to conflate leadership theory development with the career stages of Super (1980). This not a bad idea. But I am not sure that it is career 'development' though. Career development has been defined as “the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic and chance factors that combine to shape the career of an individual over the life span” (Sears, 1982, p. 139; as cited by Patton & McMahon, 2006, p. 6). Career development includes our transitions into and out of work, so I am finding Burnison's model a little truncated. I would probably be more comfortable if Burnison had termed the flowchart "the 6 stages of work expertise", or "the 6 phases of role development" (2021). And yes, I think the name matters.

To detail my understanding of the 6 stage model (Burnison, 2021):

1. Follower. This might be our first role after qualifying, and - like the Hersey and Blanchard life cycle theory of leadership (1969) of telling - we are being instructed what to do - and have all our structure supplied in almost a parent-child relationship, and deliver quite technical work. We may have low follower readiness (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969). This stage in the model doesn't appear to be like the followership style of Kelley (1988), but use of a followership model might help new hires to work on critical thinking and active participation skills. However, this stage is similar to the first theatre, the growth stage of Super (1980).
2. Collaborator. Again, this stage seems aligned to Hersey and Blanchard life cycle theory (1969), moving on two stages to participation. We are still delivering highly technical work, but we are working alongside others growing our interpersonal and team skills. We will have high follower readiness (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969), and similar to the exploration stage (Super, 1980).
3. Instructor. This is where we take on our first line leadership role, and this step appears similar to the delegating stage from Hersey and Blanchard (1969). We are a manager with training wheels, and need to be able to effectively delegate, while encouraging others to deliver to a set of requirements. This stage may be aligned to Super's establishment phase (1980): we may "have the responsibility, but not the authority" (Burnison, 2021).
4. Manager. We move onto managing larger projects, teams and goals. We build skills in motivation, vision, influence, strategy, long term-goal setting, and planning. This stage may also be aligned to Super's establishment phase (1980). We have worked our way up.
5. Influencer. This is transition phase where we move into a more mentorship role. We are less hands on but use our influence and expert power to get things done, similar to Henry & Lee's networked model (2004). This stage is - I think - aligned to both Super's maintenance and disengagement stages (1980). However, I am unsure this stage is a linear characteristic: I suspect this is a trait across all stages.
6. Leader. Here Burnison takes a servant leadership approach (Greenleaf, 1998), focusing on follower empowerment, inspiration, and values. This might possibly be aligned to Level 5 leadership of Collins (2001), or authentic leadership (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). However, I disagree that this is a different step to step 4. For good management, we must be able to both manage - get things done through others - and to lead - to encourage the heart. But perhaps this is step 5 where we hone our management skills into a more developmental, leader-oriented role.

This model is presented as a process, as a "pathway of possibilities, where the worker will, like Super's model, travel through stages of the process at different times, with different companies (Burnison, 2021). Interestingly, though, I don't think that the last two steps quite work that way. To me, step 5 is not a not linear. Step 6 might be, but I am also uncertain about that. I find steps 5 and 6 are more styles of working, rather than a role which we perform.

Sam

References:

Avolio, B. J., & Bass, B. M. (1995). Individual consideration viewed at multiple levels of analysis: A multi-level framework for examining the diffusion of transformational leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 199-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90035-7

Burnison, G. (21 September 2021). This chart shows the 6 stages of career growth. Where are you now?. https://www.cnbc.com/amp/2021/09/21/the-6-stages-of-career-growth-and-how-to-tell-where-you-are.html

Collins, J. (2001). Good To Great. HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Greenleaf, R. (1998). The Power of Servant Leadership. Berrett-Koehler.

Henry, I., & Lee, P. C. (2004). Governance and ethics in sport. In J. Beech & S. Chadwick (Eds.), The business of sport management (pp. 25-41). Pearson Education.

Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. (1969). Life cycle theory of leadership. Training and Development Journal, 23(5), 26-34.

Kelley, R. E. (1988). In Praise of Followers. Harvard Business Review, 66(6), 142-148.

Patton, W. & McMahon, M. (2006). Career Development and Systems Theory: Connecting Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). Sense Publishers.

Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16(3), 282-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(80)90056-1

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Career Practitioners as Askers of Questions

I have written before about leaders as askers of questions (here). However, I have not written about career practitioners as askers of questions of our clients.

While good leaders ask questions, so too to good career practitioners. Good career practitioners ask questions to hold up a mirror to the client. The client gets used to the idea that they will not be given answers, but will dig into themselves to find their own solutions. The conversation is what creates a free flow of information, reflection, and empowers the client to make decisions. Asking encourages thought, solutions, responsibility, and sharing. That provokes critical thought processes & deeper learning (Daft & Pirola-Merlo, 2009).

I was watching a video recently where ten counselling questions were suggested, to be slipped into the conversation wherever they best fitted, to prompt a check in of the client, and addressing a range of human needs (which are in brackets afterwards). I was thinking that these could be relatively easily adapted for career practice. We just need to confine or focus these to the workplace, work transitions, education, or training. The original question is in black (Tyrell, 2019), my suggested change in blue:

1. How often do you get to meet up with friends? (need for attention and community). Do you get to see your team members often enough?
2. Can you and your partner really talk together? (attention and intimacy). Do you feel able to talk to your manager?
3. How are you sleeping these days? (mind body connection). Is work keeping you awake at night?
4. Are you happy with your diet? (mind body connection). Are you able to take breaks at work?
5. How much exercise are you getting? (mind body connection). Are you able to move around enough at work?
6. Is there anyone who you feel really understands you, and is close to you? (intimacy). Are you well connected with colleagues at work?
7. What choice do you have about what happens in your life? (control and security). What choices do you have about what happens at work?
8. Do you have a clear sense of where you want to take things in life? (purpose, what gets me out of bed in the morning). Do you have a clear sense of where you want to go at work?
9. Do you feel excited by stuff in your life? (challenge purpose meaning). Do you feel excited by work?
10. What involvement do you have with people around you? (community and status). What involvement do you have with those who work around you?

What are your thoughts?

Sam

References:

• Browne, N. M. & Keeley, S. M. (2007). Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking (8th ed.). Longman
• Daft, R. L. & Pirola-Merlo, A. (2009). The Leadership Experience (1st Asia-Pacific ed.). Cengage.
• Tyrell, M. (9 January 2019). 10 Therapy Questions to Get to the Root of the Problem [video]. Uncommon Practitioners. https://youtu.be/B8G846WVA2I

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CDANZ ethical toolkit

The thorny question of ethics is one that never leaves us in career practice. There are always shades of an issue which we have not yet fully explored.

However, in Aotearoa New Zealand, as in the USA (NCDA, 2015), we have a code of ethics put together by our local career practitioners (CDANZ, 2016a; CDANZ, 2016b). Further, our CDANZ members have also put together a kit of ethical tools on the CDANZ website (2021), the Pātaka Kōrero toolkit consisting of decision-making models, video resources, and readings. It is definitely worth a thorough look.

Even better, CDANZ has held webinars where our members have discussed a range of ethical dilemmas, and come to some conclusions. The webinar below is a key case in point that not all ethical issues are as clear cut as we would like to think!

To have these resources available to us so we can think through scenarios before we get into a sticky situation is invaluable. It helps us to reach a determination beforehand, which means we can rely on our theoretical thinking about the 'right' way to approach this situation when we encounter it in the wild. Like firefighters rehearsing rescue before they go into a situation, considering ethical ramifications help us to shortcut our thinking, and mean we can reach a sensible decision more quickly.

And hopefully do a better job.

Sam

References:

• CDANZ (2021). Pātaka Kōrero Toolkit. http://old.cdanz.org.nz/about-cdanz/professional-standards/pataka-korero-toolkit/
• CDANZ (2020). Resource - Ethical Decision Making. http://old.cdanz.org.nz/uploads/resources/Resource%20Ethical%20Decision%20Making_100920.docx
• CDANZ (29 October 2020). CDANZ Webinar: Ethical scenarios in career practice [video]. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1f7-cmGvGxUGK9KZraXheRaR6En2N57HE/view
• CDANZ (2016a). Code of Ethics. http://old.cdanz.org.nz/uploads/CDANZ_CoE_Word%20English%20Final.pdf
• CDANZ (2016b). Ngā Tikanga Matatika. http://www.cdanz.org.nz/uploads/CDANZ_CoE_Word%20Te%20Reo%20final.pdf
• NDCA (2015). Code of Ethics. https://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/asset_manager/get_file/3395

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Mirroring alternate futures

Wow: I have just rejigged what it is that I 'do': and all from watching a TED talk.

When people used to ask me "What do you do?" I used to simply say "I tell people what to do". Then I watched Adam Grant's TED Ed video on rethinking, "What frogs in hot water can teach us about thinking again", and realised that this was not what I did at all. What I did was to "I mirror people's alternate futures".

As a career practitioner, I am not a rail-roader. I consult. I ask. I wait for others to speak. I focus on other's needs. I listen to their articulation. I am the mirror which shows them themselves. I am naturally consultative, and my professional training encourages consultative behaviours. But my family's story for me is that I am 'bossy'. On reflection, I think what that means is that, as the eldest, it is my job to gather the information, explore the options, and to propose an optimum decision. The rest get to decide... but the story is that it is 'my' job to be 'bossy', and they just "do as they are told".

So where was my epiphany? Adam's video covered four theories: (a) the escalation of commitment; then (b) identity foreclosure; then (c) cognitive entrenchment; and (d) humble leadership. It was the middle two theories which struck me the most. Firstly the idea of identity foreclosure, that we get bound up in what we do, instead of who we are; then secondly, cognitive entrenchment, where we forget to question our own ideas... or identities.

And that is when I realised: my life's work is not "telling", but 'showing', 'discovering', or maybe doing magic tricks. Helping others see into the crystal ball. I hold up the mirror to people, so they can discover who they want to be when they grow up. However many times they grow up. Or want to grow up.

In addition, Adam also pointed out that frogs actually do rethink: they jump out of the water when the water gets hot. Just like I did.

I like the new me better.

Sam

• Reference: Grant, A. (April 2021). TED Ed: What frogs in hot water can teach us about thinking again. https://www.ted.com/talks/adam_grant_what_frogs_in_hot_water_can_teach_us_about_thinking_again

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Parachute Guru: we will miss you

Job Hunter's Bible (2014)

How sad to lose Dick Bolles who died this year on 31 March. He is best known for having spent almost fifty years working on one great legacy: writing the pre-eminent handbook for job seekers, "What Color is Your Parachute? A Practical Manual for Job-Hunters and Career Changers".

I so enjoyed his practical mindset, his simplicity of approach, his direct style of writing, and the continual development of his work in each edition of "Parachute". Each year there was something new and valuable in the book, so each year I would invest in the latest version.

Of late I transitioned to the eBook. However, I also have Parachute as an audiobook, and audited his eParachute course on Udemy.

Not only have I lent clients my older versions of Parachute, but I have encouraged clients to take his eParachute MOOC on Udemy (view here), which is pretty good too.

Dick Bolles was a man of many talents. He completed his undergraduate degree in Physics (chemical engineering) at MIT and Harvard, then felt a call to the ministry and did a Masters in theology at New York's General Theological Seminary. He was an episcopalian minister for many years before being made redundant and, in his next role, being tasked with aiding jobless theologians of various stripe into new roles (Vitello, 1 April 2017; Jacobs, 10 September 2015).

What started as a self-help photocopied booklet segued into Parachute. He remained a minister until 2004. Oh, and wrote books. And lectured. And presented at conferences. And won many awards. In 2014, he delivered his wisdom to Google as an invited lecturer (here).

He was such a lovely man, and a great contributor to the field of helping people to help themselves into rewarding work. He was also kind enough to become a LinkedIn contact with a career practitioner all the way away in New Zealand.

While I think his son Gary has been working as editor and keeping the infrastructure going for some time with both Parachute and The Job Hunters Bible (here), Dick himself will be sorely missed.

Kua hinga te totara i te wao nui a Tane


Sam

References:

• Bolles, R. N. (2017). What Color is Your Parachute? A Practical Manual for Job-Hunters and Career Changers. USA: Ten Speed Press.
• Jacobs, E. (10 September 2015). Richard Bolles: The man who shaped careers advice. Retrieved 8 April 2017 from https://www.ft.com/content/c2102dea-52ea-11e5-8642-453585f2cfcd
• Job Hunter's Bible (2014). Home Page Background Image. Retrieved 8 April 2017 from http://www.jobhuntersbible.com/
• Talks at Google (5 May 2014). Dick Bolles: How to Decide what you'll be doing Five Years from Now. Retrieved 8 April 2017 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oeP6Pm3Xf-8
• Udemy (2016). The eParachute Introduction to Your Career and Job Search. Retrieved 8 April 2017 from https://www.udemy.com/the-eparachute-introduction-to-your-career-and-job-search/learn/v4/overview
• Vitello, P. (1 April 2017). Richard Bolles Dies at 90; Wrote ‘What Color Is Your Parachute?’. Retrieved 8 April 2017 from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/01/business/richard-bolles-dead-what-color-is-your-parachute.html?_r=0

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Finding a Doctoral Space

In reflecting in two years just gone, I can point to a time when I moved from simply toying with undertaking a doctorate to deciding that there was room for me in that 'doctoral' space.

It was when, at an early 2015 planning meeting for a board I am on, that I was speaking to a colleague who was in her final doctoral year. She is such a calm and measured person, humble and possessing great mana, and told me about the kindness of others and how much she had enjoyed the process and the experience; her highs and her lows, and the openness of those around her in sharing their emotions, tools and assistance in making her stronger.

The story she was telling me opened a window for me on leadership. That she had been led, and was in turn unconsciously leading others by sharing the fear and doubt, but also the achievement and professional development that she was seeking and attaining.

A spark appeared during that conversation, and more strongly coalesced afterwards, that her experience was a quiet leadership story in the career field. I started to wonder if there was a PhD in that.

Professional career practice in New Zealand is a small field, and over time, people of significance rise as our Kaumatua and Kuia, apparently raised to this position by the population, not by the people of significance themselves - our Kiwi career leaders have conveyed - not sought - mana. I wondered if this slow rise to perceived career leadership in this sector was a New Zealand thing, or if this pattern was repeated around the world.

I thought that I could (a) survey the membership of the Career Development Association of New Zealand to see who the members 'thought' were the leaders in the field, then (b) interview those whom the mantle of leadership was settled to get their personal stories of their career development and leadership, then (c) repeat the same in Australia and (d) compare the two sets of stories for thematic similarities and differences.

That should give me some idea of what the career leadership path might look like between the two nations, and if it is different.

I had some ideas for people with whom I could study: Professor Polly Parker at the University of Queensland, who presented at the International Leadership Association conference in Auckland in 2013.

I also had a template to follow: Steve Kempster's work on leadership stories for the methodology, although I would be using the method in a different context and with a different theme (2009). All good.

But then I got seduced by the dark side: AUT said they would pay my doctoral fees, and have a topic area for me to research within. I spent six months working up a new topic to fit their needs, they bailed, so I took my work to Griffith instead.

So I have banked my idea of emergent career leadership... banked, but not forgotten.

It can be my first piece of post-doc study on leadership instead, I feel.


Sam

• Reference: Kempster, Steve (2009). How Managers Have Learnt to Lead: Exploring the Development of Leadership Practice. UK: Palgrave Macmillan

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